Social correlates and outcomes of individual differences in facial behaviour.

Eithne Kavanagh

Jamie Whitehouse, Bridget Waller

Nottingham Trent University

Facial behaviour is a central component of social interaction, and it varies widely across individuals. Examination of this variation and associated social correlates and outcomes can provide valuable insight into the evolution of facial communication. However, previous research is limited in ecological validity, and by the restriction of facial data to stereotyped emotional expressions. In a naturalistic experiment, we measured the production of facial behaviour in 53 participants interacting via video call with a confederate across a range of contexts. Participants also completed self-report questionnaires, and were rated by the interacting confederate and 150 third party observers on various traits. Using facial action coding scheme (FACS) we found that facial expressivity correlated with personality and predicted social outcomes. In particular, more facially expressive individuals were more well-liked, and reached a resolution to conflict more quickly. More agreeable individuals also earned a higher reward in a negotiation if they were more facially expressive. Together, our results indicate that greater facial expressivity proffers social advantages to individuals, and that such advantages may vary depending on personality. This hints at the possibility that variation in facial behaviour may be explained by differing occupation of social niches.

Facial shape provides a valid cue to sociosexuality in men but not women.

Ian Stephen

Joseph Antar (Macquarie University)

Nottingham Trent University

Existing work suggests that observers’ perceptions of sociosexuality from strangers’ faces are positively associated with individuals’ self-reported sociosexuality. However it is not clear what cues observers use to form these judgements. Over two studies we examined whether sociosexuality is reflected in faces, which cues contain information about sociosexuality, and whether observers’ perceptions of sociosexuality from faces are positively associated with individuals’ self-reported sociosexuality. In Study One, Geometric Morphometric Modelling (GMM) analysis of 103 Caucasian participants revealed that self-reported sociosexuality was predicted by facial morphology in male but not female faces. In Study Two, 65 Caucasian participants judged the sociosexuality of opposite sex faces (faces from Study One) at zero acquaintance. Perceived sociosexuality predicted self-reported sociosexuality for men, but not women. Participants were also presented with composites of faces of individuals with more unrestricted sociosexuality paired with composites of faces of individuals with more restricted sociosexuality and asked to indicate which was more unrestricted. Participants selected the more unrestricted sociosexuality male, but not female, facial composites at rates significantly above chance. GMM analyses also found that facial morphology statistically significantly predicted perceived sociosexuality in women’s and, to a greater extent, in men’s faces. Finally, facial shape mediated the relationship between perceived sociosexuality and self-reported sociosexuality in men’s but not women’s faces. Our results suggest that facial shape acts as a valid cue to sociosexuality in men’s but not women’s faces.

Individual differences in face recognition.

Karen Lander

University of Manchester

There are huge individual differences in our ability to recognise faces. Some people struggling to recognise the faces around them whereas others are ‘super-recognisers’. Of course, most of us lie somewhere between these extremes in performance. Previous research has suggested that some aspects of socio-emotional functioning may correlate with individual differences in face recognition ability. In Study 1, we find a significant relationship between self-rated empathy, altruism and face recognition memory, with better face memory found for individuals with higher empathy and altruism scores. In Study 2, we again find a significant correlation between self-rated empathy and face recognition but this effect did not extend to a new measure of expressed empathy. We consider the inter-relationship between socio-emotional functioning and face recognition ability. We also outline the practical and theoretical importance of our findings.

The Psychology of INCELS (Involuntary Celibates).

William Costello & Vania Rolon Arevalo

Andrew Thomas, David Schmitt (Brunel University London)

Swansea University; Brunel University London, University of Texas at Austin

There exists a dearth of primary data collected from self-identified incels, a sub-culture of men who build their identity around their inability to form sexual or romantic relationships. In order to fill a gap in the literature, this study compared a sample (n = 143) of self-identified incels with non-incels (n = 365) across a range of measures, including interpersonal victimhood, self-perceived mate-value, reasons for being single, sociosexual-desire, depression, anxiety, loneliness, and life satisfaction. Incels’ accuracy in predicting female mate preferences were compared to the real preferences of a sample of women. Moderation analyses were used to consider interactions between incel-status and sociosexual-desire on wellbeing, while cross tabulation was used to explore demographic differences between the two groups of men in ethnicity, political affiliation, and likelihood of being NEET. Results suggest that incels represent a newly identified ‘at-risk’ group to target for evolutionary-psychology- informed mental-health interventions.

Unwanted celibacy: a novel predictor of misogyny.

Tom Kupfer, Pelin Gul (University of Groningen)

Nottingham Trent University

In recent years, involuntarily celibate men who identify as ‘Incels’ have received considerable public attention because of their misogynistic online discourse and their tie to a string of violent acts against women. But, surprisingly, no prior quantitative research has examined whether unwanted celibacy ‘a subjective psychological experience characteristic of, but not exclusive, to Incels’ is associated with misogynistic attitudes. We collected self-report data from a convenience sample of mixed Incel and non-Incel men (N = 349) to investigate whether the degree of unwanted celibacy is associated with misogynistic attitudes. Unwanted celibacy was positively associated with hostile attitudes towards women, sexual objectification and rape myths, even after controlling for personality traits such as agreeableness. This novel finding has an important theoretical implication, as it suggests that failure to satisfy a fundamental motive of human existence, namely the motive to acquire a romantic or sexual partner, contributes to individuals’ support for multiple forms of sexist and misogynistic views.

Existential threat posed by COVID-19 differentially predicts pace of life syndrome related behaviours.

Alyson Blanchard

Bishop Grosseteste University

Life history theory is a mid-level evolutionary theory that contextualises reproductive scheduling according to environmental conditions. Harsh and unpredictable environments signalling mortality salience promote an uptake in reproduction. When resource availability is reliable and other existential threats are low, a shift to greater offspring investment is adaptive. Pace of life syndrome (POLS) denotes the suite of psychological factors that facilitate an individual’s reproductive scheduling. The COVID-19 pandemic has presented a unique circumstance to examine whether increase in existential threat is related to people’s desire to have more children and other POLS related behaviour. In this online study (N = 274) contrary to expectation, participant’s desire to have children or more children was only predicted by younger age, and slower life history strategy but no COVID-19 related attitudes or behaviours. The desire to stockpile food was predicted by being older, reading non-politically orientated newspapers and increased trust in the Government. Taking the threat of COVID-19 seriously was predicted by fear of COVID-19, younger age, left-wing orientation and reduced reading of right-wing news sources, as well as an active disengagement with COVID-19 news. Taking measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19 was predicted by slow life history strategy, older age, non-right-wing political orientation, as well as fear of own and others death. No measures predicted pro-vaccination attitudes. Life history strategy both mediated and moderated the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and prevention spread measures. Overall, the study reveals complexity in the relationships between how people think and feel about the pandemic, and how this feeds into POLs related behaviour.

Neural correlates of dimensional schizotypy, psychopathy, and impulsivity during visual word-nonword recognition.

Martina Vanova, Luke Aldridge-Waddon, Ray Norbury, Ben Jennings, Ignazio Puzzo, Veena Kumari (Brunel University London)

Brunel University London

Our previous study indicated lower word-nonword recognition accuracy associated with a high level of positive schizotypy, psychopathy, and motor impulsivity traits, in the general population. This study examined the neural underpinnings of these associations using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Twenty-two healthy English-speaking adults completed self-report measures of schizotypy (Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences), psychopathy (Triarchic Psychopathy Measure), and impulsivity (Barratt Impulsiveness Scale) and underwent whole-brain fMRI while performing a lexical decision task (LDT) featuring high and low-frequency words, real nonwords, and pseudohomophones. Higher positive schizotypy (Unusual Experiences) was associated with lower cerebellar activity during identification of low-frequency words (over real nonwords). Higher psychopathy Boldness (fearless dominance) and Meanness (callous aggression) were associated with lower striatal and posterior cingulate activity when identifying nonwords over words. Higher Motor Impulsivity was associated with lower activity in the fusiform (bilaterally), inferior frontal (right), and temporal gyri (bilaterally) across all stimuli-types over rest. Positive schizotypy, psychopathy, and impulsivity influence word-nonword recognition through distinct neurocognitive mechanisms. Positive schizotypy and psychopathy through brain areas that play only a supportive role in reading-related skills. Motor Impulsivity associated activations are typical for phonological processing and automatic word identification, indicating reduced bilateral integration of the meaning and sound.

The distinguishing role of empathy in understanding motivations for direct and indirect aggression, across the Dark Tetrad traits.

Monika Fleet, Nadja Heym

Nottingham Trent University

The Dark Tetrad traits are associated with lesser empathy and greater preference for aggression. However, the role that empathy plays in associations between engaging in and deriving enjoyment from viewing aggression remains uncertain. Moreover, there is a lack of research investigating sadism and its facets with various aggression types. This study examines the (i) preference for engaging in direct and indirect aggression, (ii) derivation of enjoyment or heightened positive affect when watching direct (physical) and indirect (verbal) aggression, and (iii) role of empathy in underpinning these associations. Participants (N = 354, 120 males, 218 females) completed self-report measures of the DT traits, empathy, direct aggression (proactive, reactive) and indirect aggression (social exclusion, malicious humour, guilt induction). Furthermore, participants viewed four video clips depicting aggression and reported their affective responses. Results found psychopathy and sadism as the strongest predictors of engaging in and enjoying watching aggression. Notably, psychopathy was driven by deficits in affective empathy, whereas sadism was driven primarily by increased affective dissonance and positive affect. Implications of these findings regarding contemporary theories understanding DT traits with aggression are discussed, and recommendations for future research are made, with a focus on utilising experimental methods to study DT traits and aggression.

Neurodiverse profiles in vulnerable children using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire

Nikki Stevenson, Shulka Guptaa, Rakesh Pandeya, Veena Kumarib, Elaine Arnullc, Alex Sumichd, Nadja Heymd

Banaras Hindu University, Brunel University London, University of Wolverhamptom, Nottingham Trent University

The utility of pre-existing algorithms and cluster analysis-derived profiles were explored in two Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) datasets to identify the presence of neurodivergent- traits: 1) SDQ-P- parent-rated children (n=121, 3-17 years) emerging from UK domestic-violence-and- abuse backgrounds, and 2) SDQ-self-reported adolescents emerging from child-worker backgrounds (n=183, 12-18 years) in India. Algorithms and clusters were evaluated in relation to their i) cross-cohort replicability ii) inter-relational aggression or dysregulated-behaviour iii) specific risks for DVA, wellbeing difficulties, interventional outcomes, and iv) characterisation against diagnostic psychiatric categories (using the YI-4R). A dysregulation algorithm (DP-15) effectively delineated children who made poor interventional progress. The clustered SDQ-subscale data revealed five significantly different, complex groups that resemble neurodiverse groups (autism /ADHD, callous-unemotional- externalising/internalising, neurotypical-internalising/resilient) and were similar across datasets, albeit with different proportions. MANOVA revealed the significant differences on SDQ-subscales between the clusters to characterise their specific strengths/difficulties. Significant differences between clusters on DVA risk indices, aggression, wellbeing and interventional outcomes were revealed using t-tests and chi-square tests (cohort 1) and in percentage of diagnostic categories within each cluster (cohort 2). Recommendations for the algorithms and wider implications of the cluster- derived groups for service provision are discussed.

A Latent Class Approach to Religiosity Using a Large UK-based Cohort Study.

Isaac Halstead, Jon Heron, Carol Joinson

University of Bristol

Religiosity is a complex, multifaceted topic, comprised of a variety of beliefs. Much of the previous research that seeks to quantify religiosity has made use of variable-centred approaches, which place individuals on a continuum of religiosity. However, alternative approaches provide a way to examine different types of religiosity, represented by heterogeneous classes of religious (non)belief. The present study used latent class analysis to identify classes of belief and non-belief in the mothers and partners from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a large cohort study based in the UK. In the sample we analysed (N = 12503 mothers, 9814 partners), we identified 4 different classes of religiosity (Highly Religious, Moderately Religious, Agnostic, and Atheist), with stable configurations in both mothers and partners, and across 4 timepoints spanning 9 years. We also determined associations between religious latent class and a range of indicators of socioeconomic position, including financial hardship, education, and social class. Combined, these findings provide an insight into different patterns of religiosity in adults from a large UK cohort. These classes could be used as exposures in future studies of religiosity and how it relates to a variety of outcomes.

The neural correlates of reinforcement sensitivity theory: A systematic review of the ERPs literature.

Jennifer Firth, Brad Standen, Alexander Sumich, Nadja Heym

Nottingham Trent University

The original Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (oRST; Gray, 1982) proposes two motivational systems underpinning personality and behaviour: Behavioural Activation (BAS, approach) and Behavioural Inhibition (oBIS, avoidance). The revised-RST (rRST; Gray & McNaughton, 2000) provides a crucial distinction between passive (rBIS, anxiety) and active avoidance (FFFS, fear) motivation. As part of a comprehensive review on the neurobiological correlates of RST, this paper focuses on the relationships between o/rRST scales and Event-Related Potentials (ERPs). The systematic review analysed 43 ERP studies, which identified seven main ERP components relevant to RST systems: N1/P1/P2 (n=12), N2 (n=14), P3 (n=21), ERN/FRN (n=13). Findings indicated enhanced ERPs in relation to BAS during approach conditions (e.g., appetitive stimuli) and BIS during avoidance conditions (e.g., aversive stimuli). In addition, BIS was associated with conflict and error related (N2, ERN) ERPs. Only 4 out of 43 papers used the revised-RST, demonstrating the need for further rRST research in this area.

A Longitudinal Study of Perfectionism and Orthorexia in Exercisers.

Verity Pratt, Andrew Hill, Daniel Madigan

York St John University

Purpose: Research suggests that trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentational styles are related to orthorexia - a pathological obsession with correct nutrition. However, no studies have examined these relationships over time or compared the influence of the two aspects of perfectionism on orthorexia. The present study addressed these two issues by examining the predictive ability of trait perfectionism or perfectionistic self-presentation on orthorexia in exercisers over time, as well as their unique predictive ability.

Methods: A sample of 177 gym members (Mean age = 31.6 years) were recruited via social media platforms. Participants completed an online questionnaire that included the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-Short Form, Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, and the Eating Habits Questionnaire on two occasions six-weeks apart.

Results: A series of multiple regression analyses revealed that (i) trait perfectionism predicted orthorexia over time with socially prescribed perfectionism and other-oriented perfectionism unique predictors of orthorexia (knowledge, problems, feelings), (ii) perfectionistic self-presentation predicted orthorexia over time with a unique predictor of orthorexia (problems), and (iii) when consider alongside each other only trait dimensions of perfectionism were unique predictors of orthorexia.

Conclusion: The study provides further evidence that perfectionism is important in predicting orthorexia. This includes trait aspects of perfectionism and aspects that pertain to how people seek to present themselves to others. However, in regards to predicting changes over time, more engrained trait aspects appear to be more important.